The black bear is the largest predator known to exist in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and the only member of the bear family inhabiting the Southern Appalachians.

The black bear once ranged from Alaska across Canada and throughout the United States, but it has been extirpated in many parts of its former range. However, it is found throughout the park at all elevations. Optimum bear habitat is relatively inaccessible terrain with thick understory and adequate supplies of mast. Bears must fulfill nutritional needs for the entire year in just six to eight months. Their omnivorous diet consists of a wide variety of plant and animal material and varies with the seasons. Most adult park bears weigh between 100 and 300 pounds (45-135 kg), although occasionally larger individuals have been recorded. Currently, about 1500 black bears inhabit the park (GSMNP Mammal Webpage).

Species Measurements:
- Adult Total Length: 137-188 cm (4 1/2-6 1/4 ft.)
- Tail: 77-177 mm (3-7 in.)
- Height at Shoulder: 90-105 cm (3-3 1/2 ft.)
- Hind Foot: 23-37 cm (9 1/8-14 3/8in.)
- Weight: 45-267 kg (100-595 lb.)

Physical Characteristics:
The black bear is currently the park's largest native mammal. These large carnivores are usually glossy black with a brown muzzle. A small, white patch is often present on the chest. The legs are short and stout, and the short tail is almost concealed in the long shaggy fur. An adult female with four white feet was captured in the Sugarlands area (Linzey, 1995a). Other sightings of white-footed bears have been reported from the same area.

Most adult park bears weigh between 100 and 300 pounds (45-135 kg), although occasionally larger individuals have been recorded. Pelton and Beeman (1975) recorded the average weight of adult males and females as 250 and 104 pounds (112 and 47 kg), respectively. The largest male and female captured during their study weighed 510 and 200 pounds (230 and 90 kg) respectively. One bear weighing 550 pounds (248 kg) and another weighing between 350 and 400 pounds (158-180 kg) have been recorded at Elkmont (Park News and Views, 1966; 1967). A black bear with a field-dressed weight of 489 pounds (220 kg) was reported shot in October, 1959, in the Chilhowee Mountains near the park.

Habitat:
Optimum bear habitat is relatively inaccessible terrain with thick understory and adequate supplies of mast. In the southern Appalachians, bears do best in oak/hickory or mixed mesophytic forest with an understory of blueberry, blackberry, raspberry, rhododendron, and mountain laurel (Whitaker and Hamilton, 1998).

Reproduction:
The average minimum reproductive age of female bears in the park is 4.8 years (range 3-6 years) (McLean, 1991). Thereafter, females usually breed every second year with mating occurring in June or early July. Cubs, usually weighing less than one pound each, are born in late January or February while the female is in her winter den. Litters range from one to six with two being most common. Females with more than three cubs are unusual but not rare in the park. During the summer of 1963, two female bears each with four cubs were observed by Linzey---one near the Chimneys Parking Overlook on the Newfound Gap Road; the second in the Cosby Campground. The latter bear, with two of the cubs, returned to the Cosby area during the summer of 1964. A female with four cubs was again recorded at Cosby during May, 1967 (Linzey and Linzey, 1968). A female with four cubs was observed near park headquarters December 8, 1993.

The cubs and their mother usually emerge from their den in late March or early April. The earliest recorded observation of a cub away from the den was between March 4-10, 1962, when a 5 to 10 lb. cub was seen several times in the Parson Branch area. Stupka (1960b) recorded a 5 lb., 11 oz. cub April 8, 1960 at Metcalf Bottoms. Very small cubs have also been observed December 17 near Fighting Creek Gap (Stupka, 1954) and July 27 near park headquarters (Stupka, 1963). Stupka recorded the weights of three cubs: July 14, 1942, 24 lb.; August 8, 1948, 23 lb.; and September 20, 1942, 26 lb.

Longevity:
Most wild bears probably live for 13 to 15 years, although some have survived over 24 years (Linzey, 1995b).

Terrestrial Ecology:
Bear population numbers fluctuate irregularly due to periodic years of poor mast (acorns and hickory nuts) production. Currently, about 1800 black bears inhabit the park (Stiver, pers. comm., October, 2001). Their average age is 4? years (McLean, 1991).

Individual black bears are primarily active during the warmer months of the year, but signs of their presence have been observed during every month. Although the black bear is often thought of as a true hibernator, this is not technically correct. Bears enter into a deep sleep during the colder months, but their general metabolism is maintained at nearly normal levels; thus, they are not true hibernators. Their body temperature is reduced only 7 to 8? C, their metabolism is reduced 50 to 60%, and their heart rate drops from 40 to 50 beats per minute to 8 to 10 beats per minute. Bears usually select denning sites during middle and late December. The denning period in the park averages 94 days (range 56-119 days) with most bears entering dens between the last week in December and the first week in January and emerging between the last week in March and the first week in April (Johnson, 1978). The average date of den entrance for adult females was December 31; for adult males, January 4; and for subadults of both sexes January 13. Emergence was in the reverse order (Johnson, 1978).

A den site may be inside a hollow log, under an overhanging rock ledge, beneath a fallen evergreen tree, or any other spot that will shelter the bear from the cold winds, rain, and snow. On March 28, 1939 a female with at least two cubs were found in their hibernaculum beneath the roots of a fallen spruce tree. Stupka (1947) recorded a "sleeping" bear under large rocks along a tributary of Forney Creek (2,800 feet) March 31, 1947. When the bear was disturbed, it shifted its position but did not leave its bed. Pelton and Beeman (1975) found seven of ten den sites in large (3+ feet in diameter) trees (Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), White oak (Quercus alba), and maple (Aceraceae)) 20 to 60 feet above the ground at a location on the tree where wind or lightning had caused a large limb to break off and cause formation of a cavity. Such sites afford greater protection from weather and man than ground sites.

A variety of factors are involved in causing a bear to begin denning. Foremost among these is a circannual, or endogenous, rhythm. In addition, increasing precipitation, lower temperatures, and food availability may all be supplemental causative factors.

Just prior to denning, bears eliminate all food from their digestive tract and form fecal plugs. Fecal plugs of park bears have been found to consist of bear hair and a variety of debris including wood chips, twigs, leaf fragments, and small roots that may have been ingested during collection of bedding material (Johnson, 1978). Occasionally, a bear may emerge from its den and walk about for a short distance, leaving evidence of its mid-winter stroll in the snow. The bear generally returns to its den without eating anything.

Black bears are primarily solitary and nocturnal. Although their eyesight is not very good, their senses of hearing and smell are excellent. They have no permanent home and sleep either in a tree or on the ground. They are expert tree climbers, especially when young. They also swim well.

Many black bears possess remarkable homing abilities. In the park, panhandling and nuisance bears sometimes need to be relocated from campground and picnic areas to more remote areas. They are often able to return home after being transported many kilometers from their original capture point. Beeman and Pelton (1976) recorded an adult male that returned 64 km in the park and three females that returned 19 km. The journeys of one bear, identified as Bear # 75, over a period of 24 months were remarkable. Bear # 75 has the most extensive relocation history of any panhandler black bear handled by park personnel. According to Kim DeLozier, park Wildlife Biologist, Bear # 75 traveled in excess of 1,500 air miles in an effort to return to its home territory in the park.

Bears must fulfill nutritional needs for the entire year in just six to eight months. Their omnivorous diet consists of a wide variety of plant and animal material and varies with the seasons. Beeman and Pelton (1977) reported that plant foods composed 81% of the volume and animal foods composed 11% of the volume of the total diet of black bears in the park and surrounding areas. Artificial foods and debris composed the remaining 6 and 2%, respectively. In the spring, 90% of the diet is composed of grasses and other herbaceous stems and leaves. The remaining 10% or the spring diet is composed of squawroot, a parasite that grows abundantly on the roots of trees, especially oaks. Fruits of squawroot, blackberry, blueberry, huckleberry, and black cherry compose most of the summer diet. Black cherries constitute almost 25% of the early fall diet with lesser amounts of huckleberries, blackberries, and blueberries also being consumed. Acorns, hickory nuts, and beechnuts form a substantial portion of the fall diet. Animal foods consist primarily of beetles, yellow jackets, wasps, hornets, and ants. Wood-eating roaches, poultry, livestock, carrion, and garbage are also known to be consumed by park bears, There are many records of bears raiding yellow jacket nests from late July to October. Bears have also been recorded chewing the bark of various conifers (Gymnosperms), Red maple (Aceraceae), hickory (Juglandaceae), Northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and Yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) trees.

The enterococci Streptococcus faecalis and Streptococcus faecium have been recorded from fecal specimens by Mundt (1963).

Bears have been observed taking White-tailed deer (Odocoileus_virginianus) in Tremont and deer and calves in Cades Cove. A park ranger observed a fight between a bear and a wild hog along the Clingmans Dome Road (DeLozier, personal communication). It is believed that the wild hog may have been injured by a car. The bear won the fight.

Predators and Defense:
Adult black bears have no natural predators except man, although a cub may occasionally be killed by a red wolf, bobcat, or mountain lion. The overall annual mortality rate of park bears is approximately 22 percent. The rate for cubs alone is 35 percent (McLean, 1991). All wildlife is protected inside the boundaries of Great Smoky Mountains National Park, but those bears that wander outside the park are regarded as game animals and may be legally hunted during certain seasons. In addition, some bears are killed by poachers, and parts having commercial value such as claws, teeth, and gallbladders are sold illegally.

Parasites:
Cook and Pelton (1978) serologically tested black bears for antibodies to the following infectious diseases: brucellosis, canine distemper, and leptospirosis. Sera from 109 bears were tested for antibodies to Brucella canis; no reactors were found. Forty-seven bear sera samples were negative for canine distemper antibodies. One hundred and nine bears were tested for leptospirosis. Eleven were reactors for Leptospira canicola, 13 for Leptospira icterohemorrhagiae, and one for Leptospira pomona. Two bears exhibited titers to more than one species. No serologic reactors were observed for Leptospira grippotyphosa or Leptospira hardjo. Fifty-four of 60 bears (90%) were found to be infected with the larval microfilarial form of the nematode parasite Dirofilaria ursi.

Community Ecology:
Black bears in the park are wild and their behavior is sometimes unpredictable. Although extremely rare, attacks on humans have occurred, inflicting serious injuries and death. Treat bear encounters with extreme caution and follow these guidelines:
If you see a bear, remain watchful. Do not approach it. If your presence causes the bear to change its behavior (stops feeding, changes its travel direction, watches you, etc.) YOU ARE TOO CLOSE. Being too close may promote aggressive behavior from the bear such as running toward you, making loud noises, or swatting the ground. The bear is demanding more space. Don't run, but slowly back away, watching the bear. Try to increase the distance between you and the bear. The bear will probably do the same. If a bear persistently follows or approaches you without vocalizing or paw swatting, try changing your direction. If the bear continues to follow you, stand your ground. If the bear gets closer, talk loudly or shout at it. Act aggressively and try to intimidate the bear. Act together as a group if you have companions. Make yourselves look as large as possible (for example, move to higher ground). Throw nonfood objects such as rocks at the bear. Use a deterrent such as a stout stick. Don't run and don't turn away from the bear. Don't leave food for the bear; this encourages further problems.

Most injuries from black bear attacks are minor and result from a bear attempting to get at people's food. If the bear's behavior indicates that it is after your food and you're physically attacked, separate yourself from the food and slowly back away.

If the bear shows no interest in your food and you're physically attacked, fight back aggressively with any available abject - the bear may consider you as prey! Help protect others. Report all bear incidents to a park ranger immediately. Above all, keep your distance from bears!

Approaching any wild animal may disturb it. Wildlife harassment is punishable by fines of up to $5,000 and/or imprisonment of up to six months.
To report a bear incident, call (865) 436-1230.

The black bear once ranged from Alaska across Canada and throughout the United States, but it has been extirpated in many parts of its former range. Its present range includes the wilder areas of the northeastern United States and Canada; the northern part of the Great Lakes states and western Ontario; the mountainous portions of New York, Pennsylvania, and the South Atlantic states; and the wild forested sections and timbered swamps of the Gulf and South Atlantic states, together with the mountainous regions of Mexico, the western United States, Canada, and Alaska.

The black bear is found throughout the park at all elevations.

References:

Beeman, L. E., and M. R. Pelton. 1976. Homing of Black Bears in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Third International Conference of Bear Resource Management 3: 87-95.

Beeman, L. E., and M. R. Pelton. 1977 (1980). Seasonal Foods and Feeding Ecology of Black Bears in the Smoky Mountains. Fourth International Conference on Bear Resource Management, Kalispell, MT. Bear Biological Association Conference Series no. 3:14

Cook, W. J., and M. R. Pelton. 1978. Selected Infectious Parasitic Diseases of Black Bears in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Proceedings 4th Eastern Workshop on Black Bear Management Resource 4: 120-125.

Johnson, K. G. 1978. Den Ecology of Black Bears (Ursus americanus) in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee.

Linzey, D. W. , and A. V. Linzey. 1968. Mammals of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 84(3): 384-414.

Linzey, D. W. 1995a. Mammals of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The McDona

McLean, P. K. 1991. The Demographic and Morphological Characteristics of Black Bears in the Smoky Mountains. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee.

Mundt, J. O. 1963. Occurrence of Enterococci in Animals in a Wild Environment. Applied Microbiology 11: 136-140.

Pelton, M. R. 1982. Black Bear. Pages 504-514. In: J. A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer (editors). Wild Mammals of North America. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Pelton, M. R., and L. E. Beeman. 1975. A Synopsis of Population

Pelton, M. R. 1982. Black Bear. Pages 504-514. In: J. A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer (editors). Wild Mammals of North America. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Pelton, M. R., and L. E. Beeman. 1975. A Synopsis of Population Studies of

Stupka, A. 1935-63. Nature Journal, Great Smoky Mountains National Park. 28 vols. (years) each with index. (Typewritten copy in files of Great Smoky Mountains National Park.)

Stupka, A. 1960b. Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Natural